Jewish Leadership Struggle in the Roman Era part 4

One year after the incident involving the calendar, another event took place that was to change the course of Jewish history. Rabban Gamliel was anxious to put prayer in a more central place, especially as the Temple and sacrifice no longer existed. He assigned Rabbi Shimon HaPakuli to edit the central amidah prayer in order to reflect the new situation. He instituted that it be said by all, three times a day. There was dissent regarding the latter issue. There had been two daily sacrifices at the Temple. The morning and afternoon prayers corresponded to these. But there never was an evening sacrifice, only the burning on the altar of certain remnants of the sacrifices. Therefore, many reasoned, the evening prayer must be seen as optional. Rabbi Joshua not only held that opinion but, when asked, would give that as a ruling. A very young Rabbi Shimon Bar Yohai approached Rabbi Joshua on this point and was told that the evening prayer was optional. He then asked Rabban Gamliel the same question, and was told that it was obligatory. "But Rabbi Joshua told me the opposite" said Rabbi Shimon. "Wait until the rabbis of the Sanhedrin gather, and we will see about this". When the Sanhedrin assembled, Rabbi Shimon again asked his question. "Obligatory!" pronounced Rabban Gamliel. "Does anyone disagree?" There was no response. "Joshua, I have been told that your opinion differs. "I can't deny it" said Rabbi Joshua. "Stand on your feet for the rest of today's session!" He was being punished like a child told to stand in the corner. The other rabbis balked at this affront. They deposed Rabban Gamliel. Nothing remotely like this had ever happened. "Whom shall we appoint in his stead?" They thought of appointing Rabbi Joshua, but that would appear to be a political move, as he had been involved in the dispute. Rabbi Akiva? He had no ancestral merit, and might succumb to a curse from Rabban Gamliel. Their eyes turned to Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah, already a great scholar at age eighteen (some say sixteen), with a pedigree going back five hundred years to Ezra. "I must consult my wife!" His wife protested that he, too, might eventually be deposed. He responded "Should I not drink of a precious cup because it may break tomorrow?" "But you are not old!" Immediately, eighteen rows of gray hair appeared in his beard. This is the reason for his statement, reported in the Haggadah "Behold, I am like one seventy years old!". He accepted the honor. Rabban Gamliel had maintained a strict policy of only allowing the brightest and the best to attend the deliberations of the Sanhedrin. Rabbi Elazar's first move was to remove the bouncer from the gates of the meeting place. Four hundred scholars who had been previously excluded were now welcomed in. It was a move to democratization.  Rabban Gamliel had been seeking excellence rather than inclusiveness. A resolution of the problem was to come, with significant compromises from both sides. These compromises would affect rabbinic leadership for all times. That will be my next post.

Jewish Leadership Struggle in the Roman Era part 3

The incident of Rabbi Eliezer's rejection of a decision of the Sanhedrin, resulted in essentially ending the career of one of the best and brightest Talmudic figures, but the Sanhedrin's authority was certainly enhanced. There were to be two further challenges that would soon change the entire system, for the betterment of Judaism. Both of these challenges came from the same man, Rabbi Joshua. (You will note that the protagonists in this drama are the very rabbis who feature prominently in the Haggadah of Passover). One of the most central responsibilities of the Sanhedrin was fixing the calendar. The first of every Hebrew month occurs at the sighting of the first sliver of the New Moon. This occurs in some months after twenty-nine days of the old month, in others after the thirtieth. Witnesses must come before the Sanhedrin, and testify to its sighting, with the Sanhedrin then declaring it sanctified. There were, however, various heretical groups that would send false witnesses, in order to undermine Jewish observance. The Sanhedrin would need to examine the witnesses, to see if they were reliable and if their sighting of the Moon fit known astronomical facts. (When Byzantine Christian persecution became very strong in the fourth century, resulting in the disbanding of the Sanhedrin, and the death of most of the rabbis, one of their last acts was to make a fixed, mathematical calendar, sanctifying all New Moons until a new Sanhedrin could arise). Once, witnesses came to report the sighting of the New Moon and were examined by Rabban Gamliel. He declared them valid, and the New Moon was sanctified. Several members of the Sanhedrin felt that he was not correct in accepting their testimony, as the astronomical facts did not bear out what they had said. Although these rabbis disagreed, they went along with the ruling. Rabbi Joshua accepted the view of the dissidents and ruled in accordance with this dissenting view. This was no minor issue, as the month was the holiday-laden month of Tishri. The proper observance of Rosh HaShanah, Yom Kippur and Sukkot were at stake. Rabban Gamliel saw great danger in Rabbi Joshua's stand, A great schism was about to occur, with some Jews observing the holidays on one day, and others observing them the next day. Rabban Gamliel, with all the powers of the Nasi, ordered Rabbi Joshua to appear before him on the Yom Kippur according to the calculation of Rabbi Joshua, carrying his walking stick and money bag, thereby desecrating the holiest day of the year in Rabbi Joshua's calculation. Rabbi Joshua became despondent. Rabbi Akiva had a talk with him. Unlike Shabbat, which occurs every seven days regardless of what humans do or don't do, the New Moons are fixed and sanctified by the Sanhedrin, whether rightly or wrongly. Therefore, even if Rabban Gamliel is mistaken in this case, his declaration is what fixes the New Moon, not the astronomy. After all, the Torah states "these are the holidays you shall proclaim". YOU shall proclaim, whether right or wrong. (This is why in the amidah and kiddush of Shabbat, we say "Blessed are you, who sanctifies the Shabbat", but on holidays, we say "...who sanctifies Israel and the festivals". Shabbat is not dependent on Israel, holidays are.) Rabbi Joshua felt better about the situation and made the appearance before Rabban Gamliel. Rabban Gamliel kissed him on his head and said "Come in peace, my teacher and my disciple; my teacher in wisdom, but my disciple in accepting my words." A schism was avoided...for now. The unity of the Sanhedrin was maintained. But grumblings were heard at the public shaming of a great man. This was not yet over.

Jewish Leadership Struggle in the Roman Era part 2

The Sanhedrin was probably the primary religious institution in Ancient Israel, second only to the Temple. The Torah (Deut.17:8-13) gives the Sanhedrin full authority not only over judicial matters, but to interpret the text authoritatively, and make new legislation intended to enhance the observance of Judaism ("Fences"). Once the Temple was destroyed, Sadduceean Judaism, based as it was primarily around the Temple, ceased to exist. But those Pharisees who reestablished the Sanhedrin in Yavne (and later other places) had, in essence, created a portable Judaism. As Roman persecution increased greatly with the rise of Christianity, the Sanhedrin's role as judiciary waned, until it became known simply as "the Vaad" (The Committee), where the Torah could be debated, and laws enacted, but without "teeth" to enforced their decisions. This is believed to be the origin of the Yeshiva. The Torah prescribes a death penalty to those who oppose the rulings of the Sanhedrin (Deut. 17:12), so great was the importance of that institution. With the constraints of Roman law limiting the actions of the Sanhedrin, capital punishment was very seldom imposed.Nevertheless, a theoretical death penalty put the importance of a law into proper perspective. In most cases, the "herem" (ban of excommunication) served in lieu of court penalties. Challenges to Rabban Gamliel's authority, and the authority of the Sanhedrin, did come. The first case was Rabbi Eliezer ben Hyrkanos, also known as "Rabbi Eliezer the Great." He is one of the central figures in the Mishnah, and he was Rabban Gamliel's brother-in-law. The point of dispute was a rather curious one. The Torah stipulates methods of making utensils clean if they became impure (usually through immersion). However, an earthenware utensil could not be purified and had to be destroyed. The question came up, what if we have an earthenware oven that is made out of small pieces, none of which was in any sense of the word a "utensil." If it became unclean, could it simply be taken apart, and reassembled? Rabban Gamliel's Sanhedrin voted that this would not be efficacious. Rabbi Eliezer was totally convinced of the opposite opinion. "If I am right, let the stream outside run backwards" It did. "No proof can be brought from a stream!". "If I am right, let the tree outside become uprooted, and reroot itself!". That happened. "No proof can be brought from a tree!" "may the walls testify!". The walls became bent. "No proof from a wall"! "May G-d testify!" A voice was heard "the halachah is as is being said like my son Eliezer!" The rabbis jumped up and said "The Torah is not in Heaven! (Deut.30:12). The Sanhedrin's ruling is what must be followed". (One of the rabbis is said to have met Elijah after this, and asked him what G-d's reaction was. G-d laughed, and said "my children have vanquished me!"' Rabbi Eliezer, so certain of his ruling, did not accept the decision of his colleagues, and was excommunicated by Rabban Gamliel. He spent the rest of his life in relative obscurity. We have here a classical example of the conflict between conscience and a system of law. Rabban Gamliel won this round, but it was not to be the last.

Jewish Leadership Struggle in the Roman Era part 1

The Davidic Kingdom came to an end with the destruction of Jerusalem, and the exile of her people in the Sixth Century BCE. The belief in the eventual restoration of that Kingdom persisted, and persists to this day. Families with known connection to the House of David are careful to maintain their records, and the faithful await one of them to arise and deliver us at the time when it will please the Creator. In Babylon, from the earliest days of Jewish life in that country, until the Eleventh Century, the Jews were governed by an Exilarch (Resh Galuta). The Exilarch was of the Royal line. At some periods, the title was merely honorific. At other times, the Exilarch governed as King in an autonomous Jewish state under Persian rule. Some of the Exilarchs were righteous, scholarly men. Others were anything but. Babylonian Jews, for 1500 years, saw the Exilarchs as Kings in Exile, awaiting the time when they would rule in Zion. In the Holy Land, Jewish life was very tenuous. The tiny community of returnees from Babylon were governed at first by Jews who had been prominent in Babylon, and later Persia. Some had close connections with the Persian Kings. Among these leaders were the last of the Prophets; Zacharia, Haggai and Malachi. Enemies surrounded them, particularly the wicked Samaritans, who attacked them physically, and used their connections with Persia to thwart the Jews at every turn. Persia fell to Greece, which made matters yet worse for the Jews, as they demanded Jewish assimilation into Hellenistic culture. The Maccabean revolt brought about a period of independence, but the Maccabean leaders quickly fell into arrogance; assuming both the Priesthood (to which they were entitled) and the Kingdom, which they usurped. Soon, they became identified with the Sadducees, and began persecuting and killing Torah sages. Through this whole time, there existed the Sanhedrin; the Biblically mandated Supreme Court. But they lived in fear of destruction by the Maccabean Kings. The Maccabees, in turn, were killed off by Herod, an Edumean who had been forcibly converted to Judaism together with his people. His line ruled for several generations, and were little more than Roman vassals. Most of them were enemies of the Sages. A sort of "shadow governemnt" grew up among the Jews, with a Nasi (Patriarch, Prince) being appointed as President of the Sanhedrin in the Second Century BCE. The Romans recognized the Nasi as head of the Jewish community, alongside their pretend Kings, until they disbanded the Patriarchate in 425ce, as part of a huge wave of intolerance brought about when Rome became Christian. From the turn of the Common Era, the Nasi was usually of the family of the beloved Hillel the Elder, who was of the Davidic line. The Jewish world was now divided in its loyalties between two Davidic dynasties. After the fall of Jerusalem, and the destruction of the Temple, the Sanhedrin was reconstituted in the sleepy backwater of Yavne. Rabban Gamliel (a title higher than "rabbi", which was used when referring to a Nasi) was faced with the unenviable task of keeping Judaism alive without a Temple. (It must be remembered that fully two-thirds of the laws of the Torah relate to the Temple). He was chosen as Nasi shortly after the establishment of Yavne as the central Jewish seat of authority. But how was he to be viewed? As a King, who, in order to solidify his authority, must govern with a heavy hand? Or more like his ancestor Hillel, always meek and modest? He chose the former. The result was revolt by scholars who would not allow themselves to be silenced. More next time.