Rosh HaShanah part 2

So how did Rosh HaShanah become a day of dread? It is important to understand that Europe, from the time of its acceptance of Christianity in the early fourth century, was not a welcoming place for the Jews. Massacres and expulsions were the norm, rather than the exception. Greedy nobleman often protected the Jews, only because of their financial benefits to their domains and their personal coffers.. Sermons denouncing the Jews could be heard in every Church, Especially during Christmas and Easter. Peasants would storm the ghettos, and Jewish blood flowed like water. Usually, these events were of a local nature. Sometimes, they were nationwide. In England, for example, all the Jews were wiped out in 1290,with their children baptized and given to Christian families. During the Crusades (1096 to 1291), fully one third of Europe's Jews were murdered in every generation, making it equivalent to a two century Holocaust. Being a Jew in Europe meant constantly living on the brink of death. It is no wonder that the liturgy of Ashkenazi Jews is overwhelmingly preoccupied with death and martyrdom. In the thirteenth century, a major rabbinic work, the Or Zaru'a, published a liturgical poem, taken from a twelfth century work, dedicated to martyrdom. The poem was meant to be recited on Rosh HaShanah, at a very central part of the service; with the ark open, and all are standing. That poem was "Unetaneh Tokef" (Let us proclaim). It came with a legend. An eleventh century sage, Rabbi Amnon of Mainz (Germany), was pressured by the Archbishop (another version says Governor), to accept Christianity. He, of course, always refused.  Then one day, he was especially harrowed, and said "give me three days to think about it".He immediately regretted having said that, and decided not to come at the appointed time. Three days passed, and the rabbi was sent for. "Why didn't you come?" "I shouldn't have said what I said. Cut my tongue out!" "No, your tongue spoke well. Your legs didn't bring you here, so I'll cut them off". Bleeding and dying,  he asked to be taken to the synagogue. It was Rosh HaShanah, and the cantor was up to a very central part of the service. The bleeding Rabbi Amnon asked that the service be stopped, so he could say a "few words". He recited what we now know as "Unetaneh Tokef". He thereupon died. According to some versions of the story, his body disappeared immediately after. Here is the text:

Let us now relate the power of this day’s holiness, for it is awesome and frightening. On it Your Kingship will be exalted; Your throne will be firmed with kindness and You will sit upon it in truth. It is true that You alone are the One Who judges, proves, knows, and bears witness; Who writes and seals, (counts and calculates); Who remembers all that was forgotten. You will open the Book of Chronicles – it will read itself, and everyone’s signature is in it. The great shofar will be sounded and a still, thin sound will be heard. Angels will hasten, a trembling and terror will seize them – and they will say, ‘Behold, it is the Day of Judgment, to muster the heavenly host for judgment!’- for they cannot be vindicated in Your eyes in judgment.

Chazzan:

All mankind will pass before You like members of the flock. Like a shepherd pasturing his flock, making sheep pass under his staff, so shall You cause to pass, count, calculate, and consider the soul of all the living; and You shall apportion the fixed needs of all Your creatures and inscribe their verdict.

Congregation then chazzan [in some congregations this is recited only by the chazzan]:

On Rosh Hashanah will be inscribed and on Yom Kippur will be sealed how many will pass from the earth and how many will be created; who will live and who will die; who will die at his predestined time and who before his time; who by water and who by fire, who by sword, who by beast, who by famine, who by thirst, who by storm, who by plague, who by strangulation, and who by stoning. Who will rest and who will wander, who will live in harmony and who will be harried, who will enjoy tranquillity and who will suffer, who will be impoverished and who will be enriched, who will be degraded and who will be exalted.

Congregation aloud, then chazzan:

But REPENTANCE, PRAYER and CHARITY

Remove the Evil of the Decree!

Congregation and chazzan:

For Your Name signifies Your praise: hard to anger and easy to appease, for You do not wish the death of one deserving death, but that he repent from his way and live. Until the day of his death You await him; if he repents You will accept him immediately.

Chazzan:

It is true that You are their Creator and You know their inclination, for they are flesh and blood. A man’s origin is from dust and his destiny is back to dust, at risk of his life he earns his bread; he is likened to a broken shard, withering grass, a fading flower, a passing shade, a dissipating cloud, a blowing wind, flying dust, and a fleeting dream.

Congregation aloud, then chazzan:

But You are the King, the Living and Enduring G-d.

A few small problems. Rabbi Amnon, who is described as "the Great one of the Generation" is otherwise unknown. No contemporary mention of him, or the above story. There are no quotes from him in the works of other rabbis. The name "Amnon" was never used at that time, as it is the name of one of David's sons who raped his own sister. (In modern times the name has come back into fashion). However, since it is derived from the word meaning "faith", he is a paradigm for the faithful Jew. It was long suspected that the twelfth century work that published it together with other accounts of martyrdom, had actually made up the story as well as the poem. When the Cairo Geniza was discovered in 1929, copies of the prayer were found, dating to the sixth century (or earlier).  So, there was no Rabbi Amnon, and the prayer had nothing to do with the European massacre of the Jews. It had been composed in the Land of Israel, also suffering under Byzantine Christian rule. But fears of imminent death fit exactly with the dread of European Jews during the Crusades. The message that was taken away, and has become part of the understanding of Rosh HaShanah ever since, was "death and torture can come at any time. Now is the time to repent".Rosh HaShanah was transformed, at least for Ashkenazim, into a day of dread. Next time, I will examine Rabbi Nachman's unique approach to Rosh HaShanah.